Research Definition
Ø Derived from the old French
word “CERCHIER” meaning to seek or to search.
Ø The prefix “re” means
again and signifies replication of the search, implying that the person has to
find out or to take another more careful look.
Ø Is a scientific study or
investigation that is pursued to discover theories and concepts based on new
facts and information and its practical application.
Ø Systematic collection and
analysis of data to illuminate, describe or explain new facts and relationship
and for the purposes of prediction or explanation.
Ø An attempt to gain solutions
to the problem. (Treece, 1986)
Ø Refers to a problem solving
process that utilizes scientific and develop ideas and theories that give
meaningful answer to complex questions about human beings and the environment.
Ø The Committee on Research of
the Philippine Nurses Association has come up with its own definition of
research: Research is an honest, scientific investigation undertaken for
the purpose of discovering new facts or establishing new relationship among
facts already known which will contribute to the present body of knowledge and
can lead to an effective solution of existing problems.
Theory – systematic,
abstract explanation of some aspect of reality.
Concepts – building blocks of theories
Data – pieces of information obtained in the course of
investigation
Phenomenon
– an event,
happening, incident and observable facts.
Nursing Research Definition
Ø It is defined as a formal,
systematic, rigorous and intensive process used for solutions to nursing problems
or to discover and interpret new facts and trends in the clinical practice,
nursing education and nursing administration. (Waltz and Bausell, 2001)
Ø Systematic study and
assessment of nursing problems or phenomena; finding ways to improve nursing practice
and patient care through creative studies;initiating and evaluating change; and
taking action to make new knowledge useful in nursing. (Vreeland, 1963 )
Ø Includes the breadth and
depth of the disciple of nursing and the rehabilitative, therapeutic and
preventive aspects of nursing as well as the preparation of practitioners and
personnel involved in the total nursing sphere.
Ø According to NCNR, nursing
research is the testing of knowledge that can be used to guide nursing
practice. It is concerned with examining questions and verifying interventions
based on human experiences.
The Goals of Nursing Research
ü Efficiency and effectiveness in nursing care.
ü Worthiness and value of the
nursing profession.
ü Indentify, implementing and
evaluating effective health care modalities.
ü Potential for providing
quality care of clients
Sources of Knowledge in Nursing
v Faith, Habits and Traditions
v Authority
v Borrowing
v Clinical / Personal
Experience
v Trial and Error
v Intuition
v Role Modeling
v Logical Reasoning
v Assembled Information
v Disciplined Research
Reason for Conducting
Research in Nursing
1.
Gather data or information on nursing situations or conditions about which
little knowledge is available.
2.
Provides scientific knowledge base from which nursing theories emerge and
develop.
3.
Helps correct, clarify and validate perceptions and expands these.
4.
Provides theoretical and scientific basis for nursing practice.
5.
Defines the parameters of nursing and identifies its boundaries.
6.
Documents the social relevance and efficacy of nursing practice to people and
health care providers.
7.
Describes the characteristics of the nursing situation about which little
knowledge is known.
8.
Predicts probable outcomes of nursing decisions in relations to client care.
9.
Provides knowledge for purposes of problem solving and decision making.
10.
Develops and evaluates nursing theories, concepts and practices these for
clarity and validity of nursing actions.
11.
Prevents undesirable client reactions.
12. Develops a considerable
degree of confidence.
General and Specific Purposes
of Research General Purposes
Research
in general, answer questions to solve problems.
Provide tools for observation in
order to generate knowledge as basis for predicting and controlling the
phenomenon. Thus, a nurse can apply this knowledge in practice and prescribe
accurately and professionally without untoward client response or reactions to
nursing interventions. (Polit and Beck, 2004 )
Specific Purposes Specifically, research aims to do the following tasks:
ü Description
ü Exploration
ü Explanation
ü Prediction
ü Control
Research Purpose Related
to Evidence- Based Practice
ü Treatment, Therapy or
Intervention
ü Diagnosis and Assessment
ü Prognosis
ü Prevention of harm
ü Etiology or causation
ü Meaning and Process
Paradigms
for Nursing Paradigms – an overall belief system, a view of the world that strives to make sense
of the nature of reality and the basis of knowledge.
MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS
OF THE POSITIVIST AND NATURALISTIC PARADIGMS
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Positivist Paradigm
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Naturalistic Paradigm
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Nature of reality
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Reality exist
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Reality is multiple and
subjective
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Relationship bet.
Researcher and those being researched
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Inquirer is independent
from those being researched
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Inquirer interacts with
those being research
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The role of values
in inquiry
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Values and biases are to
be held in check
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Subjectivity and value are
inevitable
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Best method for
obtaining evidence
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Deductive processes
Emphasis on discrete, specific concept Focus on objectives Verification of
researchers predictions Fixed designed Outsider knowledge as external
Measured Seek generalization Focus on the product
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Inductive processes
Emphasize on whole Focus on the subjective Flexible Insider knowledge as
internal Narrative information Seek in depth understanding Focus on the
product and process
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Types of Research
1. General Classification
Ø Basic / Pure Research
The
researcher tries to find the truth about something.
It is done for the intellectual
pleasure of learning to search for knowledge for its own sake and eventually
filter down the result into real life situation.
Ø Applied Research
Applied
research seeks for practical application of theoretical or abstract knowledge.
The truth is adapted to every situation.
It results from present problems
or from socially disorganized situations. It frequently raises theoretical
questions that must be answered by basic/ pure research.
Purpose of Conducting Applied
Research
ü To solve a problem
ü To make a decision
ü To develop a new program,
product, methods and procedure
ü To evaluate program and
methods.
Ø Action Research
The
process involves the study of certain problem and from that experience,
decisions, actions and conclusion are drawn.
Findings are limited to settings
actually studied.
2. According to Level of
Investigation
Ø Exploratory Research
Allows one to study the
variables pertinent to a specific situation.
Ø Descriptive Research
The
exploration and description of phenomena in real life situation.
Provides an accurate account of
characteristics of particular individuals, situations or groups.
3. According to Time Element
Ø Historical Research
Describes what was?
Ø Descriptive Research
Describes what is?
4. According to Duration
Ø Longitudinal Study
Follows the subjects for a long
period of time in order to observe change.
Ø Cross – sectional Study
Takes
information one at a time and may require subjects to recall past events or
feelings.
It may contribute to a loss of
accuracy and support bias. It is more often done than the longitudinal studies
5. According to Research
Design
Ø Correlational Research
Involves
the systematic investigation of relationship between or among variables.
This
design is used to quantify the strength of the relationships in the real world.
This design is used to quantify
the strength of the relationship between variables or in testing a hypothesis
about a specific relationship.
Ø Experimental
An
objective, systematic, highly controlled investigation for the purpose of
predicting and controlling phenomena in nursing practice.
The researcher actively
introduces some form of treatment and has greater control over extraneous
variables.
Ø Non Experimental
The
researcher collects data without introducing any treatment or making any
changes.
Non experimental research
usually includes studies where the researcher’s primary interest is
understanding some human behavior in naturalistic contexts.
Ø Quasi – Experimental
Is
like experimental research because it actively introduces some form of
treatment or manipulation of an independent variable.
Unlike experimental research,
however, it does not utilize randomization or control group
Nursing Research
Methodologies
Ø Quantitative Research
A formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data
are used to obtain information about the world.
This method is used to
describe variables, examine relationships among variables and determine cause
and effect interactions between variables.
Rigor in Quantitative
Rigor is the striving for
excellence in research and it requires discipline, adherence to detail and
strict accuracy.
Control in Quantitative
Involves the imposing of rules
by the researcher to decrease the possibility of error.
Qualitative
Research
A
systematic, interactive, subjective approach used to describe life experiences
and give them meaning.
A
type of research conducted to describe and promote understanding of human
experiences.
Evolved from the behavioral and
social sciences as a method of understanding unique, dynamic, holistic nature
of human beings.
Approaches in Qualitative
Research
ü Phenomenological Research
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Used to answer questions of meaning
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Begin with accumulation of evidence when little topic is known or when studying
new topic it involves gathering of fresh perspective.
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The goal of phenomenological inquiry is to understand fully lived experience
and perceptions.
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Aspects of Lived Experience involves:
a.
Lived Space (spatiality)
b.
Live Body (corporeality)
c.
Lived Time (temporality)
d. Live Human Relation
(relationality)
ü Grounded Theory Research
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Method designed to inductively develop a theory based observations of selected
people.
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The primary purpose of grounded theory research is to develop a theory. The
concepts and theories discovered through this research approach are derived
directly from the data.
-
The following are the major premises of grounded theory:
§ Humans act toward objects on the basis of the meaning
those objects have for them.
§ Social meaning arise from social interaction
§ People use interpretive processes to handle and change
meanings in dealing with their situations.
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Fundamental characteristic of grounded theory research is that data collection,
data analysis and sampling of participants occur at the same time.
- In depth interview and observation
are the most common data source.
ü Ethnographic Research
- A
tool for studying cultures
- It has been associated with
studies of primitive, foreign or remote cultures which allows the researcher to
acquire new perspectives beyond his/her own ethnocentric perspective.
ü Narrative
Research
- Focus on story as the object of inquiry, to determine how
individuals make sense of events in their lives.
- The data can be collected as a story or filed notes.
- It may be used for
comparison among groups, to learn about a social phenomenon or historical
period or to explore a personality
ü Case
Study
- Involves an in-depth description of essential dimension and
processes of the phenomenon being studied.
- Are means of
providing in depth, evidence base discussion of clinical topics along with
practical information
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COMPARISON ON PHASES OF COMPARISON OF QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative
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Qualitative
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Conceptual
Phase
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Formulating
problem Review related lit. Defining framework Formulating hypotheses
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Topic
identification Situation appraisal Develop hypotheses Framework development
Objective formulation
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Design
/ Planning Phase
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Selecting
research design Develop protocol for intervention Design sampling plan
Develop methods to safeguard rights
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Research
plan formulation
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Empirical
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Collecting
data Preparing data analysis
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Data
gathering and collection
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Analytical
Phase
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Analyze
the data Interpreting the results
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Data
analysis and interpretation Conclusion
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Dissemination
Phase
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Communicating
findings Utilizing findings in practice
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Communicating
and utilizing the findings
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OF QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative
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Qualitative
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General Framework
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Seek to confirm hypotheses
about phenomenon Instrument use more rigid style of eliciting and
categorizing response to question Use highly structured methods such as
questionnaires, survey and structured observation
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Seek to explore phenomena
Instrument use more flexible, repetitious style of eliciting and categorizing
responses to questions Use semi structured methods such as in depth
interviews, focus groups and participant observation
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Analytical
Objectives
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To quantify variation To
predict causal relationship To describe characteristics of a population
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To describe variation To
describe and explain relationship To describe individual experiences To
describe group norms
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Question Format
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Close - ended
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Open – ended
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Data Format
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Numerical
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Textual
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Flexibility in
Design
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Study design is stable
from beginning to end Participant responses do not influence or determine how
and which questions researchers ask next Study design is subject to
statistical assumptions and conditions.
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Some aspects of the study
are flexible. Participant responses affect how and which questions
researchers ask next Study design is repetitious, that is, data collection
and research question are adjusted according to what is learned.
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CONTRAST
OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACHES
Element
Quantitative
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Qualitative
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View
of reality
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Reality
is objective and can be seen and measured
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Reality
is constructed by the individual
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View
of time
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Reality
is relatively constant
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Reality
is continuously constructed
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Context
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Reality
can be separated from context
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Reality
is embedded in its context
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Researcher
Approach
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Objective,
detached
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Personally
involved
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Population
Studied
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Samples
that represent overall populations, as subjects
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Individual
cases, represented as informants.
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Measures
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Human
behavior or other observable phenomena
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Study
the meaning that individuals create
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Observations
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Analyze
reality as definable variables
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Make
holistic observations of the total context
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Design
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Preconceived
and highly controlled
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Emergent
and fluid, adaptable to informant’s views
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Analysis
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Descriptive
and inferential statistics
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Analytic
induction to determine meaning
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Generalization
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Use
inference to generalize from a sample to a defined population
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Transfer
knowledge from case analysis to similar cases
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Reports
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Objective,
impersonal reports in which researcher’s opinions are undetectable
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Interpretative
reports that reflect the researcher’s reconstruction of the meaning of the
data
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JARGONS
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACHES
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Concepts
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Quantitative
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Qualitative
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Person
contributing information
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Study
participant Respondents
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Study
participant Informant, Key informant
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Person
undertaking the study
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Researcher,
investigator
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Researcher,
investigator
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That
which is being studied
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Concepts
Variables
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Phenomena
Concepts Variables
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Information
gathered
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Data
(numeric value)
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Data
(narrative descriptions)
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Links
between concepts
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Relationships
(causal,functional)
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Patterns
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Logical
reasoning processes
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Deductive
reasoning
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Inductive
reasoning
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Quality
of evidence
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Reliability,
validity, generalization
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Trustworthiness
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Parts/phases
of research output
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Statement
of the problems Results Literature review Sampling Study framework Main
problem Specific problem Interview guide Data analysis Method
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Aim
of the study Findings Reconnaissance Selection Study simulacrum Central
question Issues Aide memoir Mode of analysis Design
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Ø Outcome Research
This method examines the results of care and measures the change
in health status of clients.
The following are areas that require investigation through outcome
research:
ü Clinical client
response to medical and nursing interventions.
ü Functional maintenance
or improvement of physical functioning
ü Financial outcomes
achieved with most efficient use of resources.
ü Perceptual
client’s satisfaction with outcomes, care received and providers.
Ø Intervention Research
Involves the investigation of the effectiveness of a nursing
intervention in achieving the desired outcome or outcomes in natural setting.
Intervention research
should be theory driven, which means that the theory determines the nature of
the intervention, the health professionals to deliver the intervention, the
setting where the intervention is to be provided, the type of client to receive
the intervention and the selection and measurement of outcome variables.
Components
of Scientific Research
Ü Order
and system
Ü Control
Ü Empiricism
Ü Generalization
Characteristics
of Research
Ü It
involves the gathering of new data from new sources or first-hand information.
Ü It is
directed towards the solution of a problem
Ü It is
characterized by carefully designed procedures applying rigorous analysis
Ü It emphasizes the
development of generalizations, principles hypotheses and theories that may be
helpful in predicting future occurrences.
Ü It requires expertise
Ü It demands accurate
observation and description of what is being studied.
Ü It strives to be
logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedures being
employed.
Ü It is characterized by
patient and unhurried activities.
Ü It requires innovative
approaches and determination to succeed.
Ü It is
carefully and accurately recorded and reported.
Limitations
of Research
ü Result
of faulty planning and implementation of the project.
ü The
individual researcher
ü The
scope of knowledge or information available about the topic and the problem
under study also must be considered.
ü Sources
of data
ü The
tools of measurement may be inadequate or entirely lacking.
Reasons
for Lack of Clinical Research
1. Nurses tend to feel that they are “too busy to care for
patients”.
2. Unless the nurse has had academic training in theoretical
conceptualizations, research may not seem important.
3. Unless the importance of research is felt and recognized,
nurses may not be able to identify researchable problems.
4. Many nurse do not have the academic training needed to feel
confident in doing clinical research.
5. The ethics or research tends to researchers. Fear of harming a
patient is also a hindrance to some researchers.
6. Unless administrators are research-oriented, the nursing staff
feels the futility of support for nursing research, hence, there is no
motivation to pursue this.
7. Research takes
time, time costs money which must be budgeted.
Characteristics
of the Good Nurse Researcher
Ø Honest and Credible
Ø Intellectual Curiosity
Ø Accurate in his/her
data
Ø Organized and
Systematic
Ø Prudence
Ø Logic
Ø Self- Awareness
Ø Healthy Criticism
Ø Intellectual Honestly
Ø Good
Relationship with his/her respondents
Qualities of a Good
Researcher
R - Research Oriented
E - Efficient
S - Scientific
E - Effective
A - Active
R - Resourceful
C - Creative
H - Honest
E - Economical
R – Religious
The Consumer-Producer
Continuum in Nursing Research
Consumer of Research ß -----------àProducer of Research
Ø The consumers of research are
nurses at one end of the continuum whose involvement in research is indirect.
These nurses:
Identify
clinical problems in nursing practice
Use
library and information technology resources.
Read
research reports to develop new skills and search for relevant findings that
affect practice.
Participates
in journal clubs
Use
research to solve clinical problems
Use
research in clinical decisions
Collaborate
in developing an idea for a research project.
Reviews
a research proposal for feasibility and offer suggestion to improve the plan.
Assist
in data collection
Participate
in research study or survey
Lead
a journal club or ground discussion.
Participate in unit or service
based research councils.
Ø The producers of research at
the other end of the continuum are the nurses who actively participate in:
Designing
and implementing studies
Conducting
studies
Disseminating
research findings
Appraising
the clinical relevance of research findings.
Provides leadership for
integrating findings in clinical practice.
Nursing Research Guidelines
for the Investigative Function of Nurses
1.
Associate Degree in Nursing
Demonstrates
awareness of the value or relevance of research in nursing
Assists
in identifying problem areas in nursing practice.
Assists in collection of data
within an established structured format.
2.
Baccalaureate Degree in Nursing
Reads,
interprets and evaluates research for applicability to nursing practice.
Identifies
nursing problems that need to be investigated and participates in the
implementation of scientific studies.
Uses
nursing practice as a means of gathering data and refining and extending
practice.
Applies
established findings of nursing and other health related research to nursing
practice.
Shares research findings with
colleagues.
3.
Master’s Degree in Nursing
Analyzes
and reformulates nursing practice problems so that scientific knowledge and
scientific methods can be used to find solutions.
Provides
expertise in clinical problems by providing knowledge about the way clinical
services are delivered which enhances quality and clinical relevance of nursing.
Facilitates
investigation of problems in clinical settings by contributing to a climate of
supportive investigative activities, collaborating with others in
investigations and enhancing nurse’s access to clients and data.
Investigates
for the purpose of monitoring the quality of nursing practice in a clinical
setting.
Assists others in applying
scientific knowledge in nursing practice.
4. Doctorate Degree in
Nursing or Related Discipline
Provides
leadership for the integration of scientific knowledge with others types of
knowledge for the advancement of practice.
Conducts
investigations to evaluate the contributions of nursing activities to the
well-being of clients.
Develops methods to monitor the
quality of nursing practice in a clinical setting and to evaluate contributions
of nursing activities to the well-being of clients.
Role of Nurses in Research
v As Principal Investigators
v As Member of a Research Team
v As Evaluator of Research
Findings
v As Consumers of Research
Findings
v As Client Advocate in a
Research Study
v As Subject of Research
Ethics in Research
Ø Informed Consent
Ø Beneficence and Non-maleficence
-
Freedom from any Physical and Psychological Harm
-
Freedom from Exploitation
Ø Respect for Human Dignity
- The
right to self determination
-
The right to full disclosure
-
Anonymity and Confidentiality
Ø Justice and Fairness
Ethics in research requires
honesty and accuracy of data. The researcher must guarantee factual and evidenced
based data. There should be no “plagiarism” such as presenting the ideas
or words of another as one’s own, nor distort or fabricate data for purposes of
completing the research on time.
The Philippine Copyright Law
(R.A No. 8293 ) protects the intellectual property rights of authors and artist
.
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